Sleep Medicine Reviews
Volume 4, Issue 1 , Pages 5-20 , February 2000

Chronic hypnotic use: deadly risks, doubtful benefit: REVIEW ARTICLE

References 

  1. Wood HC. Functional nervous diseases. Pepper W (ed.). A Text-Book of the Theory and Practice of Medicine by American Teachers. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 1893;661
  2. Kripke DF, Klauber MR, Wingard DL. Mortality hazard associated with prescription hypnotics. Biol Psychiatry. 1998;43:687–693
  3. Woods JH, Katz JL, Winger G. Benzodiazepines: Use, abuse, and consequences. Pharmacological Reviews. 1992;44(2):151–347
  4. Kripke DF. Chronic hypnotic use: the neglected problem. Koella WP, Ruther E, Schulz H (ed.). Sleep »84. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag. 1985;338–340
  5. Cooper JR. Sedative-Hypnotic Drugs: Risks and Benefits. Rockville, M.D.: National Institute on Drug Abuse. 1977;
  6. Ohayon M, Caulet M, Lemoine P. Sujets âgés, habitudes de sommeil et consommation de psychotropes dans la population française. L»Encéphale. 1996;22:337–350
  7. Hammond EC. Some preliminary findings on physical complaints from a prospective study of 1,064,004 men and women. Am J Public Health. 1964;54:11–24
  8. Kripke DF, Simons RN, Garfinkel L. Short and long sleep and sleeping pills: Is increased mortality associated?. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1979;36:103–116
  9. Foley DJ, Monjan A, Simonsick EM. Incidence and remission of insomnia among elderly adults: An epidemiologic study of 6,800 persons over three years. Sleep. 1999;22(S2):S366–S372
  10. Rumble R, Morgan K. Hypnotics, sleep, and mortality in elderly people. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1992;40:787–791
  11. Allgulander C. History and current status of sedative-hypnotic drug use and abuse. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 1987;73:465–478
  12. Allgulander C, Nasman B. Regular hypnotic drug treatment in a sample of 32,679 Swedes: associations with somatic and mental health, inpatient psychiatric diagnoses and suicide, derived with automated record-linkage. Psychosom Med. 1991;53(1):101–108
  13. Ungerleider JT, Lundberg GD, Sunshine I. The drug abuse warning network (DAWN) program. Arch Gen Psychiat. 1980;37:106–109
  14. Zorumski CF, Isenberg KE. Insights into the structure and function of GABA-benzodiazepine receptors: ion channels and psychiatry. Am J Psychiatry. 1991;148(2):162–173
  15. Miller NS. Benzodiazepines: behavioral and pharmacologic basis of addiction, tolerance, and dependence. Essent Psychopharmacol. 1997;2:119–145
  16. Robinson RW, Zwillich CW. Drugs and sleep respiration. In Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC (eds). Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. Second Edition. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. 1994;603–620
  17. Guilleminault C. Benzodiazepines, breathing, and sleep. Am J Med. 1990;88:25S–28S
  18. Roth T, Roehrs T, Kryger M. Mortality in Obstructive Sleep Apnea. In Issa FG, Suratt PM, Remmers JE (eds). Sleep and Respiration. New York: Wiley-Liss. 1990;347–352
  19. Strang J, Seivewright N, Farrell M. Intravenous and other novel abuses of benzodiazepines: The opening of Pandora's box?. Br J Addiction. 1992;87:1373–1375
  20. Johnson LC, Chernik DA. Sedative-hypnotics and human performance. Psychopharmacology (Berlin). 1982;76:101–113
  21. Morgan K. Hypnotic drugs, psychomotor performance and aging. J Sleep Res. 1994;3:1–15
  22. Bonnet MH, Dexter JR, Gillin JC. The use of triazolam in phase-advanced sleep. Neuropsychopharmacol. 1988;1(3):225–234
  23. Berlin I, Warot D, Hergueta T. Comparison of the effects of zolpidem and triazolam on memory functions, psychomotor performances, and postural sway in healthy subjects. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1993;13(2):100–106
  24. Wesensten NJ, Balkin TJ, Belenky GL. Effects of daytime administration of zolpidem versus triazolam on memory. J Clin Pharmacol. 1995;48(2):115–122
  25. Tinetti ME, Speechley M, Ginter SF. Risk factors for falls among elderly persons living in the community. N Engl J Med. 1988;319(26):1701–1707
  26. Ray WA, Griffin MR, Schaffner W. Psychotropic drug use and the risk of hip fracture. N Engl J Med. 1987;316:363–369
  27. Campbell AJ, Borrie MJ, Spears GF. Risk factors for falls in a community-based prospective study of people 70 years and older. J Gerontol. 1989;44(4):M112–M117
  28. Ray WA, Griffin MR, Downey W. Benzodiazepines of long and short elimination half-life and the risk of hip fracture. JAMA. 1989;262(23):3303–3307
  29. Ray WA. Psychotropic drugs and injuries among the elderly: A review. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1992;12(6):386–396
  30. Betts TA, Birtle J. Effect of two hypnotic drugs on actual driving performance next morning. Br Med J. 1982;25 Sept:285–852
  31. Hemmelgarn B, Suissa S, Huang A. Benzodiazepine use and the risk of motor vehicle crash in the elderly. JAMA. 1997;278(1):27–31
  32. Miller RR, Greenblatt DJ. Hypnotics. In Miller RR, Greenblatt DJ (eds). Drug Effects in Hospitalized Patients. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 1976;171–191
  33. Shapiro S, Stone D, Lewis GP. Clinical effects of hypnotics II. An epidemilogic study. JAMA. 1969;209:2016–2020
  34. Judd LL, Ellinwood E, McAdams LA. Cognitive performance and mood in patients with chronic insomnia during 14-day use of flurazepam and midazolam. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1990;10:56S–67S
  35. Oswald I, Adam K, Borrow S. The effects of two hypnotics on sleep, subjective feelings, and skilled performance. In Passouant P, Oswald I (eds). Pharmacology of the States of Alertness. Oxford: Pergamon Press. 1979;51–63
  36. Kales A, Soldatos CR, Bixler EO. Rebound insomnia and rebound anxiety: a review. Pharmacology. 1983;26:121–137
  37. Adam K, Oswald AI. Can a rapidly-eliminated hypnotic cause daytime anxiety?. Pharmacopsychiat. 1989;22(3):115–119
  38. Kales A, Bixler EO, Tan TL. Chronic hypnotic-drug use: ineffectiveness, drug-withdrawal insomnia, and dependence. JAMA. 1974;227:513–517
  39. Roehrs T, Vogel G, Roth T. Rebound insomnia: Its determinants and significance. Am J Med. 1990;88:39S–42S
  40. Sanchez LGB, Sanchez JM, Moreno JLL. Dependence and tolerance with zolpidem. Am J Health-Syst Pharm. 1996;53:2638–2638
  41. Salzman C, Ellinwood EH, Gillin JC. Benzodiazepine Dependence, Toxicity, and Abuse: A Task Force Report of the American Psychiatric Association. Washington, D.C. American Psychiatric Association. 1990;
  42. Miller NS, Gold MS, Stennie K. Benzodiazepines: The dissociation of addiction from pharmacological dependence/withdrawal. Psychiatr Ann. 1995;25(3):149–152
  43. Ashton H. Protracted withdrawal from benzodiazepines: The post-withdrawal syndrome. Psychiatr Ann. 1995;25(3):174–180
  44. Greenblatt DJ, Miller LG, Shader RI. Benzodiazepine discontinuation syndromes. J Psychiatr Res. 1990;24(2):73–79
  45. Scharf MB, Roth T, Vogel GW. A multicenter, placebo-controlled study evaluating zolpidem in the treatment of chronic insomnia. J Clin Psychiatry. 1994;55(5):192–199
  46. Roy-Byrne PP, Cowley DS. Benzodiazepines in Clinical Practice: Risks and Benefits. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press. 1991;
  47. Schneider-Helmert D. Why low-dose benzodiazepine-dependent insomniacs can»t escape their sleeping pills. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 1988;78(6):706–711
  48. Mitler MM, Seidel WF, van den Hoed J. Comparative hypnotic effects of flurazepam, triazolam, and placebo: a long-term simultaneous nighttime and daytime study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1984;4:2–15
  49. Johnson LC, Mitler MM, Dement WC. Comparative hypnotic effects of flurazepam, triazolam, and placebo: a reanalysis. Naval Health Research Center Report No. 84-13. Naval Medical Research and Development Command, Bethesda, MD. 1984;1–25
  50. Kripke DF, Hauri P, Ancoli-Israel S. Sleep evaluation in chronic insomniacs during 14-day use of flurazepam and midazolam. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1990;10(S4):32S–43S
  51. Morin CM, Colecchi C, Stone J. Behavioral and pharmacological therapies for late-life insomnia. JAMA. 1999;281:991–999
  52. Johnson LC, Chernik DA, Hauri P. A multicenter 14-day study of flurazepam and midazolam in chronic insomniacs: general discussion and conclusions. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1990;10:76S–80S
  53. Morin CM, Bastien CH, Radouco-Thomas M. Late-life insomnia and chronic use of benzodiazepines: medication tapering with and without behavioral intervention. Sleep. 1998;21S:99
  54. Parrino L, Smerieri A, Boselli M. Discontinuation of elevated doses of benzodiazepines used as hypnotics: polysomnographic assessment of sleep parameters. Sleep. 1998;21S:101
  55. Nowell PD, Mazumdar S, Buysse DJ. Benzodiazepines and zolpidem for chronic insomnia: A meta-analysis of treatment efficacy. JAMA. 1997;278:2170–2177
  56. Carskadon MA, Dement WC, Mitler MM. Self-reports versus sleep laboratory findings in 122 drug-free subjects with complaints of chronic insomnia. Am J Psychiatry. 1976;133:1382–1388
  57. Nowell PD, Reynolds CF, Buysse DJ. Paroxetine in the treatment of primary insomnia: preliminary clinical and electroencephalogram sleep data. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60:89–95
  58. Roth T, Roehrs T, Linnoila M. Characteristics of chronic insomniacs examined in a multicenter 14-day study of flurazepam and midazolam. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1990;10:24S–27S
  59. Committee on Halcion, Institute of Medicine . Halcion: An Independent Assessment of Safety and Efficacy Data. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. 1997;
  60. Gold MS. Rohypnol (flunitrazepam). The Facts About Tobacco, Alcohol and Other Drugs. 1995;4(4):1–2
  61. Hauri PJ. Case Studies In Insomnia. New York: Plenum. 1991;
  62. Morin CM, Culbert JP, Schwartz SM. Nonpharmacological interventions for insomnia: A meta-analysis of treatment efficacy. Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151(8):1172–1180
  63. Walsh JK, Schweitzer PK. Ten-year trends in the pharmacological treatment of insomnia. Sleep. 1999;22(3):371–375
  64. National Institute of Medicine . Sleeping Pills, Insomnia, and Medical Practice. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences. 1979;
  65. Solomon F, White CC, Parron DL. Sleeping pills, insomnia and medical practice. N Engl J Med. 1979;300:803–808
  66. The Pharmaceutical Journal. 1980;384–386
  67. Consensus Conference . Drugs and insomnia. The use of medications to promote sleep. JAMA. 1984;251(18):2410–2414
  68. National Institutes of Health . Consensus development conference statement: the treatment of sleep disorders of older people. Sleep. 1991;14 (2):169–177
  69. Monjan AA. Sleep disorders of older people: report of a consensus conference. Hosp Community Psychiatry. 1990;41(7):743–744
  70. Erman MK, Mendelson WB, Roehrs TA, Roth T, Walsh JK. The Pharmacological Management of Sleep. Washington, D.C.: National Sleep Foundation. 1966;
  71. Willis DB, Calle EE, Miracle-McMahill HL. Estrogen replacement therapy and risk of fatal breast cancer in a prospective cohort of postmenopausal women in the United States. Cancer Causes and Control. 1996;7:449–457
  72. Jensen E, Dehlin O, Hagberg B. Insomnia in an 80-year-old population: Relationship to medical, psychological and social factors. J Sleep Res. 1998;7:183–189
  73. Huppert FA, Whittington JE. Symptoms of psychological distress predict 7-year mortality. Psychol Med. 1995;25:1073–1086
  74. Ganguli M, Reynolds CF, Gilby JE. Prevalence and persistence of sleep complaints in a rural older community sample: The MoVIES project. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1996;44:778–784
  75. Simon GE, VonKorff M. Prevalence, burden, and treatment of insomnia in primary care. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:1417–1423
  76. Ahmed I, Soares Souza KV, Seifas R. Randomized controlled trials in Archives of General Psychiatry (1959–1995). A prevalence study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55:754–755
  77. Wysowski DK, Daum C. Outpatient use of prescription sedative-hypnotic drugs in the United States, 1970 through 1989. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151(9):1779–1783
  78. Kripke DF. U.S. consumption of hypnotics: Do we know?. Sleep. 1998;21S:85
  79. Nanterre: Synthelabo. 1997;
  80. Mellinger GD, Balter MB, Uhlenhuth EH. Insomnia and its treatment. Prevalence and correlates. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1985;42:225–232
  81. Morgan K, Dallosso H, Ebrahim S. Prevalence, frequency and duration of hypnotic drug use among the elderly living at home. Br Med J. 1988;296:601–602
  82. Ohayon MM, Caulet M. Psychotropic medication and insomnia complaints in two epidemiological studies. Can J Psychia. 1996;41:457–464
  83. Quera-Salva MA, Orluc A, Goldenberg F. Insomnia and use of hypnotics: study of a French population. Sleep. 1991;14(5):386–391

PII: S1087-0792(99)90076-X

doi: 10.1053/smrv.1999.0076

Sleep Medicine Reviews
Volume 4, Issue 1 , Pages 5-20 , February 2000

Article Tools