Sleep Medicine Reviews
Volume 13, Issue 2 , Pages 149-156 , April 2009

Diagnosis and management of restless legs syndrome in children

  • Narong Simakajornboon

      Affiliations

    • Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
  • ,
  • Leila Kheirandish-Gozal

      Affiliations

    • Kosair Children Hospital Research Institute, Division of Pediatric Sleep Medicine, University of Louisville, 570 S. Preston Street, Suite 204, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
  • ,
  • David Gozal

      Affiliations

    • Kosair Children Hospital Research Institute, Division of Pediatric Sleep Medicine, University of Louisville, 570 S. Preston Street, Suite 204, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorrespondence to: David Gozal, Department of Pediatrics, Comer Children's Hospital, The University of Chicago, 5721 S. Maryland Avenue, MC 8000, Suite K-160, Chicago, IL 60637, USA. Tel.: +1 (773) 834 1483; fax: +1 (773) 702 4523.

References 

  1. Chesson AL, Anderson WM, Littner M, Davila D, Hartse K, Johnson S. Practice parameters for the treatment of restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder. An American Academy of Sleep Medicine Report. Standards of Practice Committee of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. Sleep. 1999;33:961–968
  2. Montplaisir J, Boucher S, Poirier G, Lavigne , Lapierre O, Lesperance P. Clinical, polysomnographic, and genetic characteristics of restless legs syndrome: a study of 133 patients diagnosed with new standard criteria. Mov Disord. 1997;12:61–65
  3. Kotagal S, Silber MH. Childhood-onset restless legs syndrome. Ann Neurol. 2004;56:803–807
  4. Muhle H, Neumann A, Lohmann-Hedrich K, Lohnau T, Lu Y, Winkler S. Childhood-onset restless legs syndrome: clinical and genetic features of 22 families. Mov Disord. 2008;23:1113–1121
  5. Walters AS, Hickey K, Maltzman J, Verrico T, Joseph D, Hening W, et al. A questionnaire study of 138 patients with restless legs syndrome: the “Night-Walkers” survey. Neurology. 1996;46(1):92–95
  6. Picchietti D, Allen RP, Walters AS, Davidson JE, Myers A, Ferini-Strambi L. Restless legs syndrome: prevalence and impact in children and adolescents – the Peds REST Study. Pediatrics. 2007;120:253–266
  7. Stefansson H, Rye DB, Hicks A, Petursson H, Ingason A, Thorgeirsson TE. A genetic risk factor for periodic limb movements in sleep. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(7):639–647
  8. Allen RP, Picchietti D, Hening WA, Trenkwalder C, Walters AS, Montplaisir J. Restless legs syndrome diagnosis and epidemiology workshop at the National Institutes of Health. Sleep Med. 2003;4:101–119
  9. Picchietti D, Steven HE. Early manifestations of restless legs syndrome in childhood and adolescence. Sleep Med. 2008;9:770–781
  10. Picchietti MA, Picchietti DL. Restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder in children and adolescents. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2008;15:91–99
  11. Davis ID, Baron J, O'Riordan MA, Rosen CL. Sleep disturbances in pediatric dialysis patients. Pediatr Nephrol. 2005;20:69–75
  12. Trenkwalder C, Högl B, Benes H, Kohnen R. Augmentation in restless legs syndrome is associated with low ferritin. Sleep Med. 2008;9(5):572–574
  13. Earley CJ, Ponnuru P, Wang X, Patton SM, Conner JR, Beard JL, et al. Altered iron metabolism in lymphocytes from subjects with restless legs syndrome. Sleep. 2008;31(6):847–852
  14. Gamaldo CE, Earley CJ. Restless legs syndrome: a clinical update. Chest. 2006;130:1596–1604
  15. Espinar-Sierra J, Vela-Buena A, Luque-Otero M. Periodic leg movements in sleep in essential hypertension. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1997;51:103–107
  16. Pennestri MH, Montplaisir J, Colombo R, Lavigne G, Lanfranchi PA. Nocturnal blood pressure changes in patients with restless legs syndrome. Neurology. 2007;68(15):1213–1218
  17. Siddiqui F, Strus J, Ming X, Lee IA, Chokroverty S, Walters AS. Rise of blood pressure with periodic limb movements in sleep and wakefulness. Clin Neurophysiol. 2007;118:1923–1930
  18. Pearson VE, Allen RP, Dean T, Gamaldo CE, Lesage SR, Early CJ. Cognitive deficits associated with restless legs syndrome (RLS). Sleep Med. 2006;7:25–30
  19. Wagner ML, Walters AS, Fisher BC. Symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults with restless legs syndrome. Sleep. 2004;27:1499–1504
  20. Picchietti DL, Walters AS. Restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder in children and adolescents: comorbidity with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 1996;5:729–740
  21. Picchietti DL, England SJ, Walters AS, Willis K, Verrico T. Periodic limb movement disorder and restless legs syndrome in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Neurol. 1998;13:588–594
  22. Picchietti DL, Underwood DJ, Farris WA, Walters AS, Shah MM, Dahl RE. Further studies on periodic limb movement disorder and restless legs syndrome in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mov Disord. 1999;14:1000–1007
  23. Chervin RD, Archbold KH, Dillon JE, Pituch KJ, Panahi P, Dahl RE. Association between symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, restless legs, and periodic leg movements. Sleep. 2002;25:213–218
  24. Cortese S, Konofal E, Lecendreux M, Arnulf I, Mouren MC, Darra F. Restless legs syndrome and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review of the literature. Sleep. 2005;28:1007–1013
  25. Sadeh A, Pergamin L, Bar-Haim Y. Sleep in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analysis of polysomnographic studies. Sleep Med Rev. 2006;10:381–398
  26. Sever Y, Ashkenazi A, Tyano S, Weizman A. Iron treatment in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. A preliminary report. Neuropsychobiology. 1997;35(4):178–180
  27. Konofal E, Lecendreux M, Arnulf I, Mouren MC. Iron deficiency in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch. Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004 Dec;158(12):1113–1115
  28. Konofal E, Lecendreux M, Deron J, Marchand M, Cortese S, Zaïm M, et al. Effects of iron supplementation on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children. Pediatr Neurol. 2008 Jan;38(1):20–26
  29. Oner P, Oner O. Relationship of ferritin to symptom ratings children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: effect of comorbidity. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2008 Sep;39(3):323–330
  30. Cortese S, Lecendreux M, Bernardina BD, Mouren MC, Sbarbati A, Konofal E. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and restless legs syndrome: the iron hypothesis. Med Hypotheses. 2008;70(6):1128–1132
  31. Picchietti DL, Walters AS. Moderate to severe periodic limb movement disorder in childhood and adolescence. Sleep. 1999;22(3):297–300
  32. Guilleminault C, Palombini L, Pelayo R, Chervin RD. Sleep-walking and sleep terrors in prepubertal children: what triggers them?. Pediatrics. 2003;111(1):e17–e25
  33. Simakajornboon N, Gozal D, Vlasic V, Mack C, Sharon D, McGinley B. Periodic limb movement in sleep and iron status in children. Sleep. 2003;26:735–738
  34. Simakajornboon N, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Gozal D, Sharon D, Murry L, Abraham M. A long term follow-up study of periodic limb movement disorders in children after iron therapy. Sleep. 2006;29(Suppl.):A76
  35. Silber MH, Ehrenberg BL, Allen RP, Buchfuhrer MJ, Early CJ, Hening WA. An algorithm for the management of restless legs syndrome. Mayo Clin Proc. 2004;79:916–922
  36. Hening WA, Allen RP, Early CJ, Picchietti DL, Silber MH. An update on the dopaminergic treatment of restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder. Sleep. 2004;27:970–999
  37. Molokwu OC. Appropriate use of dopamine agonists and levodopa in restless legs syndrome in an ambulatory care setting. Neurology. 2008;42:627–632
  38. Schade R, Andersohn F, Suissa S, Haverkamp W, Garbe E. Dopamine agonists and the risk of cardiac valve regurgitation. N Engl J Med. 2007;356(1):29–38
  39. Allen RP, Earley CJ. Augmentation of the restless legs syndrome with carbidopa/levodopa. Sleep. 1996;19:205–213
  40. Earley CJ, Allen RP. Pergolide and carbidopa/levodopa treatment of the restless legs syndrome and periodic leg movements in sleep in a consecutive series of patients. Sleep. 1996;19:801–810
  41. Walters AS, Mandelbaum DE, Lewin DS, Kugler S, England SJ, Miller M. Dopaminergic therapy in children with restless legs/periodic limb movements in sleep and ADHD. Dopaminergic Study Group. Pediatr Neurol. 2000;22:182–186
  42. Konofal E, Arnulf I, Lecendreux M, Mouren MC. Ropinirole in a child with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and restless leg syndrome. Pediatr Neurol. 2005;32:350–351
  43. Martinez S, Guilleminault C. Periodic leg movements in prepubertal children with sleep disturbance. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2004;46:765–770
  44. Garcia-Borreguero D, Larrosa O, de la Liave Y, Verger K, Masramon X, Hernandez G. Treatment of restless legs syndrome with gabapentin: a double-blind, cross-over study. Neurology. 2002;59:1573–1579
  45. Happe S, Sauter C, Kiösch G, Saletu B, Zeitlhofer J. Gabapentin versus ropinirole in the treatment of idiopathic restless legs syndrome. Neuropsychobiology. 2003;48:82–86
  46. Newcorn JH, Schulz K, Harrison M, DeBellis MD, Udarbe JK, Halperin JM. Alpha 2 adrenergic agonists: neurochemistry, efficacy, and clinical guidelines for use in children. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1998;45:1099–1122
  47. Bassetti CL, Mauerhofer D, Gugger M, Mathis J, Hess CW. Restless legs syndrome: a clinical study of 55 patients. Eur Neurol. 2001;45(2):67–74
  48. Winkelmann J, Wetter TC, Collado-Seidel V, Gasser T, Dichgans M, Yassouridis A, et al. Clinical characteristics and frequency of the hereditary restless legs syndrome in a population of 300 patients. Sleep. 2000;23(5):597–602
  49. O'Brien LM, Holbrook CR, Faye Jones V, Gozal D. Ethnic difference in periodic limb movements in children. Sleep Med. 2007;8(3):240–246
  50. Crabtree VM, Ivanenko A, O'Brien LM, Gozal D. Periodic limb movement disorder of sleep in children. J Sleep Res. 2003;12(1):73–81

PII: S1087-0792(08)00131-7

doi: 10.1016/j.smrv.2008.12.002

Sleep Medicine Reviews
Volume 13, Issue 2 , Pages 149-156 , April 2009