Sleep Medicine Reviews
Volume 7, Issue 1 , Pages 61-80 , February 2003

Treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in children: do we really know how?

References 

  1. Ali NJ, Pitson D, Stradling JR. Snoring, sleep disturbance, and behaviour in 4–5 year olds. Arch Dis Child. 1993;68:360–366
  2. Corbo GM, Fuciarelli F, Foresi A, De Benedetto F. Snoring in children: association with respiratory symptoms and passive smoking (published erratum appears in. BMJ. 1990;300:226–1494
  3. Owen GO, Canter RJ, Robinson A. Snoring, apnoea and ENT symptoms in the paediatric community. Clin Otolaryngol. 1996;21:130–134
  4. Hulcrantz E, Löfstrand TB, Ahlquist RJ. The epidemiology of sleep related breathing disorders in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 1995;Suppl 6:S63–S66
  5. Ferreira AM, Clemente V, Gozal D, Gomes A, Pissarra C, César H, et al. Snoring in Portuguese primary school children. Pediatrics. 2000;106:URL
  6. Am J Resp Crit Care Med. 1996;153:866–878
  7. Marcus , CL , Omlin KJ, Basinski DJ, Bailey SL, Rachel AB, et al. Normal polysomnographic values for children and adolescents. Am Rev Resp Dis. 1992;146:1235–1239
  8. Goh DY, Galster P, Marcus CL. Sleep architecture and respiratory disturbances in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162:682–686
  9. Bandla HPR, Gozal D. Dynamic changes in EEG spectra during obstructive apnea in children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2000;29:359–365
  10. Carroll JL, McColley SA, Marcus CL, Curtis S, Loughlin GM. Inability of clinical history to distinguish primary snoring from obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children. Chest. 1995;108:610–618
  11. Gozal D, Wang M, Pope DW. Objective sleepiness measures in pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. Pediatrics. 2001;108:693–697
  12. Hill W. On some causes of backwardness and stupidity in children: and the relief of the symptoms in some instances by nasopharyngeal scarifications. BMJ. 1889;11:711–712
  13. Weissbluth M, Davis A, Poncher J, Reiff J. Signs of airway obstruction during sleep and behavioral, developmental and academic problems. Dev Behav Pediatr. 1983;4:119–121
  14. Leach J, Olson J, Hermann J, Manning S. Polysomnographic and clinical findings in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1992;118:741–744
  15. Singer LP, Saenger P. Complications of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 1990;23:665–676
  16. Guilleminault , C , Korobkin , R . Winkle, R. A review of 50 children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Lung. 1981;159:275–287
  17. Ali NJ, Pitson DJ, Stradling JR. Snoring, sleep disturbance, and behavior in 4–5 year olds. Arch Dis Child. 1993;68:360–366
  18. Ali NJ, Pitson D, Stradling JR. Natural history of snoring and related behaviour problems between the ages of 4 and 7 years. Arch Dis Child. 1994;71:74–76
  19. Chervin R, Dillon J, Bassetti C, Ganoczy D, Pituch K. Symptoms of sleep disorders, inattention, and hyperactivity in children. Sleep. 1997;20:1185–1192
  20. Owens J, Opipari L, Nobile C, Spirito A. Sleep and daytime behavior in children with obstructive sleep apnea and behavioral sleep disorders. Pediatrics. 1998;102:1178–1184
  21. Ali NJ, Pitson D, Stradling JR. Sleep disordered breathing: effects of adenotonsillectomy on behaviour and psychological functioning. Eur J Pediatr. 1996;155:56–62
  22. Gozal D. Sleep-disordered breathing and school performance in children. Pediatrics. 1998;102:616–620
  23. Fletcher EC. Effect of episodic hypoxia on sympathetic activity and blood pressure. Respir Physiol. 2000;119:189–197
  24. Fletcher EC, Bao G, Li R. Renin activity and blood pressure in response to chronic episodic hypoxia. Hypertension. 1999;34:309–314
  25. Peled N, Greenberg A, Pillar G, Zinder O, Levi N, Lavie P. Contributions of hypoxia and respiratory disturbance index to sympathetic activation and blood pressure in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Am J Hypertens. 1998;11:1284–1289
  26. Phillips BG, Somers VK. Neural and humoral mechanisms mediating cardiovascular responses to obstructive sleep apnea. Respir Physiol. 2000;119:181–187
  27. Marcus CL, Greene MG, Carroll JL. Blood pressure in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:1098–1103
  28. Amin RS, Daniels S, Kimball T, Willging P, Cotton R. Echocardiographic changes in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep. 2000;23:A99
  29. Aljadeff G, Gozal D, Shechtman VL, Burrell , B , Harper RM, et al. Heart rate variability in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep. 1997;20:151–157
  30. Baharav A, Kotagal S, Rubin BK, Pratt J, Akselrod S. Autonomic cardiovascular control in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Clin Auton Res. 1999;9:345–351
  31. Tal A, Leiberman A, Margulis G, Sofer S. Ventricular dysfunction in children with obstructive sleep apnea: radionuclide assessment. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1988;4:139–143
  32. Sofer S, Weinhouse E, Tal A, Wanderman KL, Margulis G, Leiberman A, et al. Cor pulmonale due to adenoidal or tonsillar hypertrophy or both in children. Noninvasive diagnosis and follow-up. Chest. 1988;93:119–122
  33. Tang JR, Le Cras TD, Morris KG, Abman SH. Brief perinatal hypoxia increases severity of pulmonary hypertension after reexposure to hypoxia in infant rats. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2000;278:L356–L364
  34. Marcus CL, Carroll JL, Koerner CB, Hamer A, Lutz J, Loughlin GM. Determinants of growth in children with the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. J Pediatr. 1994;125:556–562
  35. Bar A, Tarasiuk A, Segev Y, Phillip M, Tal A. The effect of adenotonsillectomy on serum insulin-like growth factor-I and growth in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. J Pediatr. 1999;135:76–80
  36. Soultan Z, Wadowski S, Rao M, Kravath RE. Effect of treating obstructive sleep apnea by tonsillectomy and/or adenoidectomy on obesity in children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1999;153:33–37
  37. Hudgel DW, Thanakitcharu S. Pharmacologic treatment of sleep-disordered breathing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;158:691–699
  38. Brouillette RT, Hanson D, David R, Klemka L, Szatowski A, Fernbach S, et al. Diagnostic approach to suspected obstructive sleep apnea in children. J Pediatr. 1984;105:10–14
  39. Kahn A, Groswasser J, Sottiaux M, Rebuffat E, Sunseri M, Franco P, et al. Clinical symptoms associated with brief obstructive sleep apnea in normal infants. Sleep. 1993;16:409–413
  40. Wang RC, Elkins TP, Keech D, Wauquier A, Hubbard D. Accuracy of clinical evaluation in pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1998;118:69–73
  41. Brooks LJ, Stephens BM, Bacevice AM. Adenoid size is related to severity but not the number of episodes of obstructive apnea in children. J Pediatr. 1998;132:682–686
  42. Goldstein NA, Sculerati N, Walsleben JA, Bhatia N, Friedman DM, Rapoport DM. Clinical diagnosis of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea validated by polysomnography. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1994;111:611–617
  43. Brouillette RT, Morielli A, Leimanis A, Waters KA, Luciano R, Ducharme FM. Nocturnal pulse oximetry as an abbreviated testing modality for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. Pediatrics. 2000;105:405–412
  44. Shintani T, Asakura K, Kataura A. The effect of adenotonsillectomy in children with OSA. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 1998;44:51–58
  45. Suen JS, Arnold JE, Brooks LJ. Adenotonsillectomy for treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in children. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1995;121:525–530
  46. Nieminen P, Tolonen U, Lopponen H. Snoring and obstructive sleep apnea in children: a 6-month follow-up study. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2000;126:481–486
  47. Helfaer MA, McColley SA, Pyzik PL, Tunkel DE, Nichols DG, Baroody FM, et al. Polysomnography after adenotonsillectomy in mild pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. Crit Care Med. 1996;24:1323–1327
  48. Zucconi M, Ferini Strambi L, Pestalozza G, Tessitore E, Smirne S. Habitual snoring and obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children: effects of early tonsil surgery. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 1993;26:235–243
  49. Wiet GJ, Bower C, Seibert R, Griebel M. Surgical correction of obstructive sleep apnea in the complicated pediatric patient documented by polysomnography. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 1997;41:133–143
  50. Agren K, Nordlander B, Linder-Aronson S, Zettergren-Wijk L, Svanborg E. Children with nocturnal upper airway obstruction: postoperative orthodontic and respiratory improvement. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh). 1998;118:581–587
  51. Stradling JR, Thomas G, Warley ARH, Williams P, Freeland A. Effect of adenotonsillectomy on nocturnal hypoxaemia, sleep disturbance, and symptoms in snoring children. Lancet. 1990;335:249–253
  52. Lind MG, Lundell BPW. Tonsillar hyperplasia in children. Arch Otolaryngol. 1982;108:650–654
  53. Kudoh F, Sanai A. Effect of tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy on obese children with sleep-associated breathing disorders. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh). 1996;216–218
  54. Harvey JMM, O'Callaghan MJ, Wales PD, Harris MA, Masters IB. Six-month follow-up of children with obstrucitve sleep apnoea. J Paediatr Child Health. 1999;35:136–139
  55. Brouillette RT, Fernbach SK, Hunt CE. Obstructive sleep apnea in infants and children. J Pediatr. 1982;100:31–40
  56. Frank Y, Kravath RE, Pollak CP, Weitzman ED. Obstructive sleep apnea and its therapy: clinical and polysomnographic manifestations. Pediatrics. 1983;71:737–742
  57. Potsic WP, Pasquariello PS, Corso Baranak C, Marsh RR, Miller LM. Relief of upper airway obstruction by adenotonsillectomy. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1986;94:476–480
  58. Nishimura T, Morishima N, Hasegawa S, Shibata N, Iwanaga K, Yagisawa M. Effect of surgery on obstructive sleep apnea. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh). 1996;523:231–233
  59. Alqvist-Rastad J, Hultcrantz E, Svanholm H. Children with tonsillar obstruction: indications for and efficacy of tonsillectomy. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1988;77:831–835
  60. Hultcrantz E, Linder A, Markstrom A. Tonsillectomy or tonsillotomy? – A randomized study comparing postoperative pain and long-term effects. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 1999;51:171–176
  61. Am J Resp Crit Care Med. 1999;160:1381–1387
  62. Rosen CL, Morton S, Larkin E, Aylor J, Clark K, O'Malla B, et al. Persistence of sleep disordered breathing in children post-tonsillectomy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;163:A184
  63. Rowe LD. Tonsils and adenoids: when is surgery indicated?. Common Problems of the Head and Neck. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1995; p. 107–109
  64. McColley SA, April MM, Carroll JL, Nacleiro RM, Loughlin GM. Respiratory compromise after adenotonsillectomy in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1992;118:940–943
  65. Rosen GM, Muckle RP, Mahowald MW, Goding GS, Ullevig C. Postoperative respiratory compromise in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: can it be anticipated?. Pediatrics. 1994;93:784–788
  66. Price SD, Hawkins DB, Kahlstrom EJ. Ear Nose Throat J. 1993;72:526–531
  67. Williams EF, Woo P, Miller R, Kellman RM. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1991;104:509–516
  68. Ruboyianes JM, Cruz RM. Pediatric adenotonsillectomy for obstructive sleep apnea. ENT-Ear Nose Throat J. 1996;75:430–433
  69. McGowan FX, Kenna MA, Fleming JA, O'Connor T. Adenotonsillectomy for upper airway obstruction carries increased risk in children with a history of prematurity. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1992;13:222–226
  70. Friedman O, Chidekel A, Lawless ST, Cook SP. Postoperative bilevel positive airway pressure ventilation after tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy in children – a preliminary report. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 1999;51:177–180
  71. Milerad J, Lagercrantz H, Johnso P. Obstuctive sleep apnea in Arnold–Chiari malformation treated with acetazolamide. Acta Paediatr. 1992;81:609–612
  72. Al-Ghamdi SA, Manoukian JJ, Morielli A, Oudjhane K, Ducharme FM, Brouillette RT. Do systemic corticosteroids effectively treat obstructive sleep apnea secondary to adenotonsillar hypertrophy?. Laryngoscope. 1997;107:1382–1387
  73. Brouillette RT, Manoukian JJ, Ducharme FM, Oudiane K, Earle LG, Ladan S, et al. Efficacy of fluticasone nasal spray for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. J Pediatr. 2001;138:838–844
  74. Demain JG, Goetz DW. Pediatric adenoidal hypertrophy and nasal airway obstruction: reduction with aqueous nasal beclomethasone. Pediatrics. 1995;95:355–364
  75. Aljadeff G, Gozal D, Bailey-Wahl SL, Burrell B, Keens TG, Davidson Ward SL. Effect of overnight supplemental oxygen in obstructive sleep apnea in children. Am J Resp Crit Care Med. 1996;153:51–55
  76. Marcus CL, Carroll JL, Bamford O, Pyzik P, Loughlin GM. Supplemental oxygen during sleep in children with sleep-disordered breathing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;152:1297–1301
  77. Rains JC. Treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in pediatric patients. Behavioral intervention for compliance with nasal continuous positive airway pressure. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1995;34:535–541
  78. Li KK, Riley RW, Guilleminault C. An unreported risk in the use of home nasal continuous positive airway pressure and home nasal ventilation in children: mid-face hypoplasia. Chest. 2000;117:916–918
  79. Downey R, Perkin RM, MacQuarrie J. Nasal continuous positive airway pressure use in children with obstructive sleep apnea younger than 2 years of age. Chest. 2000;117:1608–1612
  80. Marcus CL, Ward SL, Mallory GB, Rosen CL, Beckerman RC, Weese-Mayer DE, et al. Use of nasal continuous positive airway pressure as treatment of childhood obstructive sleep apnea. J Pediatr. 1995;127:88–94
  81. Guilleminault C, Pelayo R, Clerk A, Leger D, Bocian RC. Home nasal continuous positive airway pressure in infants with sleep disordered breathing. J Pediatr. 1995;127:905–912
  82. Waters KA, Everett FM, Bruderer JW, Sullivan CE. Obstructive sleep apnea: the use of nasal CPAP in 80 children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;152:780–785
  83. McNamara F, Sullivan CE. Obstructive sleep apnea in infants and its management with nasal continuous positive airway pressure. Chest. 1999;116:10–16
  84. McNamara F, Sullivan CE. Effects of CPAP therapy on respiratory and spontaneous arousals in infants with OSA. J Appl Physiol. 1999;87:889–896
  85. Cohen SR, Ross DA, Burstein FD, Lefaivre JF, Riski JE, Simms C. Skeletal expansion combined with soft-tissue reduction in the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in children: physiologic results. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1998;119:476–485
  86. Cohen SR, Simms C, Burstein FD, Thomsen J. Alternatives to tracheostomy in infants and children with obstructive sleep apnea. J Pediatr Surg. 1999;34:182–186
  87. Januszkiewicz JS, Cohen SR, Burstein FD, Simms C. Age related outcomes of sleep apnea surgery in infants and children. Ann Plast Surg. 1997;38:465–477
  88. Cohen SR, Lefaivre JF, Burstein FD, Simms C, Kattos AV, Scott PH, et al. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1997;99:638–646
  89. Hoeve HLJ, Joosten KFM, van den Berg S. Management of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children with craniofacial malformation. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 1999;49:S59–S61
  90. Bull MJ, Givan DC, Sadove AM, Bixler D, Hearn D. Improved outcome in Pierre-Robin sequence: effect of multidisciplinary evaluation and management. Pediatrics. 1990;86:294–301
  91. Strome M. Obstructive sleep apnea in Down syndrome children: a surgical approach. Laryngoscope. 1986;96:1340–1342
  92. Bower CM, Richmond D. Tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy in patients with Down syndrome. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 1995;33:141–148
  93. Donaldson JD, Redmond WM. Surgical management of obstructive sleep apnea in children with Down syndrome. J Otolaryngol. 1988;17:398–403
  94. Kosko JR, Derkay CS. Uvulopalatopharyngoplasty: treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in neurologically impaired pediatric patients. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 1995;32:241–246
  95. Magardino TM, Tom LWC. Surgical management of obstructive sleep apnea in children with cerebral palsy. Laryngoscope. 1999;109:1611–1615
  96. Seid AB, Martin PJ, Pransky SM, Kearns DB. Surgical therapy of obstructive sleep apnea in children with severe mental insufficiency. Laryngoscope. 1990;100:507–510
  97. Kirk VG, Morielli A, Gozal D, Marcus CL, Waters KA, D'Andrea LA, et al. Treatment of sleep-disordered breathing in children with myelomeningocele. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2000;30:445–452
  98. James D, Ma L. Mandibular reconstruction in children with obstructive sleep apnea due to micrognathia. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1997;100:1131–1137
  99. Bell RB, Turvey TA. Skeletal advancement for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in children. Cleft Palate Craniofac J. 2001;38:147–154
  100. Uemara T, Hayashi T, Satoh K, Mitsukawa N, Yoshikawa A, Jinnnai T, et al. A case of improved obstructive sleep apnea by distraction osteogenesis midface hypoplasia of an infantile Crouzon's syndrome. J Craniofacial Surg. 2001;12:73–77

PII: S1087-0792(01)90256-4

doi: 10.1053/smrv.2001.0256

Sleep Medicine Reviews
Volume 7, Issue 1 , Pages 61-80 , February 2003